Non-Thermal Strategies in Dairy Processing: Enhancing the Quality of Cow, Sheep, Goat, and Buffalo Milk via Sonication and Thermosonication

Gulcin Yildiz; Suzan Sever

doi:10.57252/jrpfoods.2025.3

Authors

Gulcin Yildiz Igdir University
Suzan Sever

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.57252/jrpfoods.2025.3

Keywords:

Bioactive compounds, cavitation, milk quality, microbial inactivation, non-thermal processing, thermosonication

Abstract

This study comprehensively evaluates the effects of pasteurization, sonication, and thermosonication (TS) on the physicochemical, bioactive, and microbiological properties of four milk varieties: cow, sheep, goat, and buffalo. Pasteurization was performed at 90 °C for 1 minute, while sonication was applied for durations ranging from 5 to 30 minutes. TS treatments were conducted at temperatures between 40 and 60 °C for varying times. A multidimensional quality assessment included enzymatic activities (polyphenol oxidase [PPO] and pectin methyl esterase [PME]), microbial inactivation targeting Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity (DPPH assay), hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content, and turbidity. Thermal pasteurization led to a marked reduction in TPC and antioxidant capacity; for instance, cow milk TPC decreased from 468.19 to 373.18 mg/100 mL, and antioxidant activity declined from 5.99 to 3.48 mg/100 mL. Conversely, sonication enhanced the retention of bioactive compounds, particularly at longer exposure times. Thermosonication further amplified these benefits by significantly reducing enzymatic activity and microbial load. TS at 60 °C demonstrated the highest efficacy, achieving over a 5-log reduction in E. coli while reducing PPO and PME activities to 0.02 and 2.11 U/mL, respectively—compared to 1.30 and 7.14 U/mL in untreated sheep milk. Additionally, this condition preserved high antioxidant activity (5.67 mg/100 mL) and produced only moderate HMF levels (1.89 mg/100 mL), indicating minimal thermal degradation. Overall, thermosonication emerged as a superior non-thermal processing technique, effectively ensuring microbial safety and enzymatic deactivation while preserving the functional quality of milk. These findings underscore its potential as a viable and innovative alternative to conventional pasteurization methods.

References

Abdulstar, A. R., Altemimi, A. B., & Al-Hilphy, A. R. (2023). Exploring the power of thermosonication: A comprehensive review of its applications and impact in the food industry. Foods, 12, 1459.

Abid, M., Jabbar, S., Hu, B., Hashim, M. M., Wu, T., Lei, S., Khan, M. A., & Zeng, X. (2014). Thermosonication as a potential quality enhancement technique of apple juice. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 21(3), 984–990.

Choudhary, A., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Majid, I., Aggarwal, P., & Suri, S. (2020). 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) formation, occurrence and potential health concerns: Recent developments. Toxin Reviews, 40(4), 545–561.

Cohen, E., Birk, Y., Mannheim, C., & Saguy, I. (1998). A rapid method to monitor quality of apple juice during thermal processing. LWT – Food Science and Technology, 31(7–8), 612–616.

Duan, J., Gao, S., Diao, Y., Zhang, Q., Gu, Y., & Wang, S. (2025). Effects of heat treatment on liquid milk quality and safety: Nutritional changes, hazardous substances and control strategies. Food Control, 176, 111377.

Esua, O. J., Sun, D.-W., Ajani, C. K., Cheng, J.-H., & Keener, K. M. (2022). Modelling of inactivation kinetics of Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes on grass carp treated by combining ultrasound with plasma functionalized buffer. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 88, 106086.

Givens, D. I. (2020). The importance of milk and dairy foods in the diets of infants, adolescents, pregnant women, adults, and the elderly. Journal of Dairy Science, 103(11), 9681–9699.

Huang, G., Chen, S., Dai, C., Sun, L., Sun, W., Tang, Y., Xiong, F., He, R., & Ma, H. (2017). Effects of ultrasound on microbial growth and enzyme activity. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 37, 144–149.

Kalsi, B. S., Singh, S., Alam, M. S., & Bhatia, S. (2023). Application of thermosonication for guava juice processing: Impacts on bioactive, microbial, enzymatic and quality attributes. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 99, 106595.

Khongphakdee, P., Peanparkdee, M., & Sae-tan, S. (2025). Dual effects of thermal processing and polyphenol incorporation on bioaccessibility and functionality of soy and whey proteins. Food Chemistry Advances, 6, 100905.

Koutsoumanis, K., Alvarez-Ordóñez, A., Bolton, D., Bover-Cid, S., Chemaly, M., Davies, R., De Cesare, A., Herman, L., Hilbert, F., Lindqvist, R., Nauta, M., Peixe, L., Ru, G., Simmons, M., Skandamis, P., Suffredini, E., Castle, L., Crotta, M., Grob, K., Milana, M. R., Petersen, A., Roig Sagués, A. X., Vinagre Silva, F., Barthélémy, E., Christodoulidou, A., Messens, W., & Allende, A. (2022). The efficacy and safety of high-pressure processing of food. EFSA Journal, 20(3), e07128.

Lee, H., Yildiz, G., Dos Santos, L. C., Jiang, S., Andrade, J., Engeseth, N. C., & Feng, H. (2016). Soy protein nano-aggregates with improved functional properties prepared by sequential pH treatment and ultrasonication. Food Hydrocolloids, 55, 200–209.

Luo, W., Tang, J., Wang, B., Wu, D., Wang, J., Cheng, L., & Geng, F. (2023). The potential mechanism of low-power water bath ultrasound to enhance the effectiveness of low-concentration chlorine dioxide in inhibiting Salmonella Typhimurium. Food Chemistry: X, 20, 100901.

Maisuthisakul, P., Suttajit, M., & Pongsawatmanit, R. (2007). Assessment of phenolic content and free radical-scavenging capacity of some Thai indigenous plants. Food Chemistry, 100(4), 1409–1418.

Manzoor, M. F., Xu, B., Khan, S., Shukat, R., Ahmad, N., Imran, M., Rehman, A., Karrar, E., Aadil, R. M., & Korma, S. A. (2021). Impact of high-intensity thermosonication treatment on spinach juice: Bioactive compounds, rheological, microbial, and enzymatic activities. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 78, 105740.

Mejares, C. T., Huppertz, T., & Chandrapala, J. (2022). Thermal processing of buffalo milk – A review. International Dairy Journal, 129, 105311.

Mtaoua, H., Sánchez-Vega, R., Ferchichi, A., & Martín-Belloso, O. (2017). Impact of high-intensity pulsed electric fields or thermal treatment on the quality attributes of date juice through storage. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 41(4), e13052.

Pegu, K., & Arya, S. S. (2023). Non-thermal processing of milk: Principles, mechanisms and effect on milk components. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 14, 100730.

Peterson, R. V., & Pitt, W. G. (2000). The effect of frequency and power density on the ultrasonically-enhanced killing of biofilm-sequestered Escherichia coli. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 17(4), 219–227.

Rabbani, A., Ayyash, M., D’Costa, C. D. C., Chen, G., Xu, Y., & Kamal-Eldin, A. (2025). Effect of heat pasteurization and sterilization on milk safety, composition, sensory properties, and nutritional quality. Foods, 14(8), 1342.

Rasheed, S., Qazi, I. M., Ahmed, I., Durrani, Y., & Azmat, Z. (2016). Comparative study of cottage cheese prepared from various sources of milk. Proceedings of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences, 53(4), 269–282.

Silva, C. N. d., Carmo, J. R. d., Nunes, B. V., Demoliner, F., Souza, V. R. d., & Bastos, S. C. (2025). Synergistic effect of thermosonication on the stability of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of blackberry juice. Foods, 14, 901.

Stobiecka, M., Król, J., & Brodziak, A. (2022). Antioxidant activity of milk and dairy products. Animals (Basel), 12(3), 245.

White, S., Jackson-Davis, A., Gordon, K., Morris, K., Dudley, A., Abdallah-Ruiz, A., Allgaier, K., Sharpe, K., Yenduri, A. K., Green, K., & Santos, F. (2025). A review of non-thermal interventions in food processing technologies. Journal of Food Protection, 88(6), 100508.

Wu, Y., Xu, L., Liu, X., Hasan, K. M. F., Li, H., Zhou, S., Zhang, Q., & Zhou, Y. (2021). Effect of thermosonication treatment on blueberry juice quality: Total phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanin, and antioxidant activity. LWT – Food Science and Technology, 150, 112021.

Xu, B., Feng, M., Chitrakar, B., Cheng, J., Wei, B., Wang, B., Zhou, C., & Ma, H. (2023). Multi-frequency power thermosonication treatments of clear strawberry juice: Impact on color, bioactive compounds, flavor volatiles, microbial and polyphenol oxidase inactivation. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 84, 103295.

Yıldız, G. (2018). Physicochemical properties of soy protein concentrate treated with ultrasound at various amplitudes. Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology, 8(4), 133–139.

Yıldız, G. (2022). Changes in emulsifying properties, droplet size, turbidity and lipid oxidation of pea protein nanoemulsions exposed to high-intensity ultrasound and high-pressure homogenization during storage. Akademik Gıda, 20(4), 336–342.

Yildiz, G., & Feng, H. (2019). Sonication of cherry juice: Comparison of different sonication times on color, antioxidant activity, total phenolic and ascorbic acid content. Latin American Applied Research Journal, 49(4), 255–260.

Yildiz, G. (2021). The effect of high intensity ultrasound pre-treatment on the functional properties of microwave-dried pears (Pyrus communis). Latin American Applied Research Journal, 51(2), 133–137.

Yildiz, G. (2022). Color, microstructure, physicochemical, textural and sensory properties with the retention of secondary metabolites in convective-, microwave- and freeze-dried carrot (Daucus carota) slices. British Food Journal, 124(11), 3922–3935.

Zupanc, M., Pandur, Ž., Stepišnik Perdih, T., Stopar, D., Petkovšek, M., & Dular, M. (2019). Effects of cavitation on different microorganisms: The current understanding of the mechanisms taking place behind the phenomenon. A review and proposals for further research. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 57, 147–165.